Agenda 21, Chapter 12

Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Combating Desertification And Drought


Introduction

12.1 Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems, with unique features and resources. Fragile ecosystems include deserts, semi-arid lands, mountains, wetlands, small islands and certain coastal areas. Most of these ecosystems are regional in scope, as they transcend national boundaries. This chapter addresses land resource issues in deserts, as well as arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. Sustainable mountain development is addressed in chapter 13; small islands and coastal areas are discussed in chapter 17.

12.2 Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Desertification affects about one sixth of the world's population, 70 per cent of all drylands, amounting to 3.6 billion hectares, and one quarter of the total land area of the world. The most obvious impact of desertification, in addition to widespread poverty, is the degradation of 3.3 billion hectares of the total area of rangeland, constituting 73 per cent of the rangeland with a low potential for human and animal carrying capacity; decline in soil fertility and soil structure on about 47 per cent of the dryland areas constituting marginal rainfed cropland; and the degradation of irrigated cropland, amounting to 30 per cent of the dryland areas with a high population density and agricultural potential.

12.3 The priority in combating desertification should be the implementation of preventive measures for lands that are not yet degraded, or which are only slightly degraded. However, the severely degraded areas should not be neglected. In combating desertification and drought, the participation of local communities, rural organizations, national Governments, non-governmental organizations and international and regional organizations is essential.

12.4 The following programme areas are included in this chapter:

Programme Areas

A. Strengthening the knowledge base and developing informationand monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification and drought, including the economic and social aspects of these ecosystems

Basis for action

12.5 The global assessments of the status and rate of desertification conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1977, 1984 and 1991 have revealed insufficient basic knowledge of desertification processes. Adequate world-wide systematic observation systems are helpful for the development and implementation of effective anti-desertification programmes. The capacity of existing international, regional and national institutions, particularly in developing countries, to generate and exchange relevant information is limited. An integrated and coordinated information and systematic observation system based on appropriate technology and embracing global, regional, national and local levels is essential for understanding the dynamics of desertification and drought processes. It is also important for developing adequate measures to deal with desertification and drought and improving socio-economic conditions.

Objectives

12.6 The objectives of this programme area are:

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

12.7 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(b) Data and information

12.8 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

12.9 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.10 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

12.11 The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $350 million, including about $175 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

12.12 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of desertification and drought, should:

(c) Human resource development

12.13 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of desertification and drought, should develop the technical and professional skills of people engaged in monitoring and assessing the issue of desertification and drought.

(d) Capacity-building

12.14 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of desertification and drought, should:

B. Combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified soil conservation, afforestation and reforestation activities

Basis for action

12.15 Desertification affects about 3.6 billion hectares, which is about 70 per cent of the total area of the world's drylands or nearly one quarter of the global land area. In combating desertification on rangeland, rainfed cropland and irrigated land, preventative measures should be launched in areas which are not yet affected or are only slightly affected by desertification; corrective measures should be implemented to sustain the productivity of moderately desertified land; and rehabilitative measures should be taken to recover severely or very severely desertified drylands.

12.16 An increasing vegetation cover would promote and stabilize the hydrological balance in the dryland areas and maintain land quality and land productivity. Prevention of not yet degraded land and application of corrective measures and rehabilitation of moderate and severely degraded drylands, including areas affected by sand dune movements, through the introduction of environmentally sound, socially acceptable, fair and economically feasible land-use systems. This will enhance the land carrying capacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragile ecosystems.

Objectives

12.17 The objectives of this programme area are:

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

12.18 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(b) Data and information

12.19 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.20 The appropriate United Nations agencies, international and regional organizations, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should:

12.21 The national Governments concerned, the appropriate United Nations agencies and bilateral agencies should strengthen the coordinating role in dryland degradation of subregional intergovernmental organizations set up to cover these activities, such as CILSS, IGADD, SADCC and the Arab Maghreb Union.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

12.22 The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $6 billion, including about $3 billion from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

12.23 Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) Human resource development

12.24 Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(d) Capacity-building

12.25 Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

C. Developing and strengthening integrated development programmes for the eradication of poverty and promotion of alternative livelihood systems in areas prone to desertification

Basis for action

12.26 In areas prone to desertification and drought, current livelihood and resource-use systems are not able to maintain living standards. In most of the arid and semi-arid areas, the traditional livelihood systems based on agropastoral systems are often inadequate and unsustainable, particularly in view of the effects of drought and increasing demographic pressure. Poverty is a major factor in accelerating the rate of degradation and desertification. Action is therefore needed to rehabilitate and improve the agropastoral systems for sustainable management of rangelands, as well as alternative livelihood systems.

Objectives

12.27 The objectives of this programme area are:

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

12.28 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(b) Data and information

12.29 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.30 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

12.31 The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs for this programme area in chapter 3 (Combating poverty) and chapter 14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development).

(b) Scientific and technological means

12.32 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) Human resource development

12.33 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(d) Capacity-building

12.34 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and maintain mechanisms to ensure the integration into sectoral and national development plans and programmes of strategies for poverty alleviation among the inhabitants of lands prone to desertification.

D. Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes and integrating them into national development plans and national environmental planning

Basis for action

12.35 In a number of developing countries affected by desertification, the natural resource base is the main resource upon which the development process must rely. The social systems interacting with land resources make the problem much more complex, requiring an integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources. Action plans to combat desertification and drought should include management aspects of the environment and development, thus conforming with the approach of integrating national development plans and national environmental action plans.

Objectives

12.36 The objectives of this programme area are:

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

12.37 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(b) Data and information

12.38 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should promote information exchange and cooperation with respect to national planning and programming among affected countries, inter alia, through networking.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.39 The relevant international organizations, multilateral financial institutions, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should strengthen their cooperation in assisting with the preparation of desertification control programmes and their integration into national planning strategies, with the establishment of national coordinating and systematic observation mechanisms and with the regional and global networking of these plans and mechanisms.

12.40 The General Assembly, at its forty-seventh session, should be requested to establish, under the aegis of the General Assembly, an intergovernmental negotiating committee for the elaboration of an international convention to combat desertification in in those countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, with a view to finalizing such a convention by June 1994.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

12.41 The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $180 million, including about $90 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

12.42 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) Human resource development

12.43 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should undertake nationwide major anti-desertification awareness/training campaigns within countries affected through existing national mass media facilities, educational networks and newly created or strengthened extension services. This should ensure people's access to knowledge of desertification and drought and to national plans of action to combat desertification.

(d) Capacity-building

12.44 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and maintain mechanisms to ensure coordination of sectoral ministries and institutions, including local-level institutions and appropriate non-governmental organizations, in integrating anti-desertification programmes into national development plans and national environmental action plans.

E. Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and drought-relief schemes, including self-help arrangements, for drought-prone areas and designing programmes to cope with environmental refugees

Basis for action

12.45 Drought, in differing degrees of frequency and severity, is a recurring phenomenon throughout much of the developing world, especially Africa. Apart from the human toll - an estimated 3 million people died in the mid-1980s because of drought in sub-Saharan Africa - the economic costs of drought-related disasters are also high in terms of lost production, misused inputs and diversion of development resources.

12.46 Early-warning systems to forecast drought will make possible the implementation of drought-preparedness schemes. Integrated packages at the farm and watershed level, such as alternative cropping strategies, soil and water conservation and promotion of water harvesting techniques, could enhance the capacity of land to cope with drought and provide basic necessities, thereby minimizing the number of environmental refugees and the need for emergency drought relief. At the same time, contingency arrangements for relief are needed for periods of acute scarcity.

Objectives

12.47 The objectives of this programme area are:

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

12.48 In drought-prone areas, Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(b) Data and information

12.49 Governments of affected countries, at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.50 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

12.51 The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $1.2 billion, including about $1.1 billion from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

12.52 Governments at the appropriate level and drought-prone communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) Human resource development

12.53 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(d) Capacity-building

12.54 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

F. Encouraging and promoting popular participation and environmental education, focusing on desertification control and management of the effects of drought

Basis for action

12.55 The experience to date on the successes and failures of programmes and projects points to the need for popular support to sustain activities related to desertification and drought control. But it is necessary to go beyond the theoretical ideal of popular participation and to focus on obtaining actual active popular involvement, rooted in the concept of partnership. This implies the sharing of responsibilities and the mutual involvement of all parties. In this context, this programme area should be considered an essential supporting component of all desertification-control and drought-related activities.

Objectives

12.56 The objectives of this programme area are:

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

12.57 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(b) Data and information

12.58 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.59 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

12.60 The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $1.0 billion, including about $500 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

12.61 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should promote the development of indigenous know-how and technology transfer.

(c) Human resource development

12.62 Governments, at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

(d) Capacity-building

12.63 Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should promote members of local rural organizations and train and appoint more extension officers working at the local level.


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